In a digital era, we enjoy a wealth of learning opportunities that, even a few short years ago, were largely out of reach. This democratization of learning has huge implications for the modern workforce, allowing individuals from numerous backgrounds to access a range of skill-building resources. These opportunities span many fields and subjects, allowing a wide range of students and professionals to elevate their skills and knowledge.
Instructional design shapes this modern approach to learning, ensuring materials and resources are not merely accessible, but that they meet the unique needs of today’s diverse learners in access, strategy, and time constraints. Materials and experiences must be easy and enjoyable to navigate, and they must produce clear outcomes, in the form of concept mastery or skill development.
While many instructional initiatives have risen to the occasion, challenges persist and, unfortunately, many programs fall short of their intended goals. Instructional design supports both the content and execution of learning, which without clear direction, can become a chief cause for concern, as learners cannot predict how effective or engaging any given course will ultimately prove. This uncertainty can be a drain on overall enthusiasm and motivation, or waste resources and time of companies and learners alike; a single bad experience can have ripple effects, potentially limiting the value of future learning efforts.
Content and execution are best addressed through evidence-based strategies. This is where the powerful field of instructional design comes into play. Through the years, researchers have uncovered the mechanisms that contribute to effective instructional strategies, and they have leveraged these insights to craft numerous theories and models of instructional design.
The new challenge? Determining which learning theories and models to use in which situations. We explore these concerns below, revealing how strategic selection can elevate instructional development processes:
Why Understanding Instructional Design Frameworks Matters
While instructional design brings an innovative approach to teaching and skill development, it often suffers from uneven execution, sparked by a limited understanding of learners’ unique needs and priorities.
There is no such thing as a one-size-fits-all approach. Still, a research-backed blueprint can provide valuable guidance, ensuring that materials can cater to diverse learning styles. Exploring different frameworks can also reveal which development processes are preferable from a budgetary or timing standpoint.
Choosing the Right Model for Your Needs
Numerous principles and models promise to guide the instructional design process. Each approach offers its own unique advantages, but a few downsides often accompany these. Optimal selection starts by reviewing various theories, principles and models. Each approach’s advantages and drawbacks are then evaluated in relation to the specific learning initiative.
Assessing Learner Needs and Goals
Instructional design models should be tailored to serve specific learning populations. This is not possible without understanding what learners need and how they hope to leverage newly developed skills or insights. Such priorities might not be immediately evident to instructional designers, however, so it is important to determine what learners hope to accomplish and how they prefer to navigate the learning process.
This may begin with a needs analysis, which involves securing data from diverse sources, including interviews, surveys or focus groups. This should reveal learners’ current knowledge and skill gaps, not to mention how or where they might apply newly gained insights.
Aligning Models with Instructional Objectives
Once learner needs are fully understood, these insights can form the basis for the strategic selection of instructional design models. Details about learner needs and preferences can be used to formulate clear objectives, which can be linked to various models’ strengths.
For example, Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction may prove most relevant if students prioritize experiential learning or real-world application. Learning environments may also factor into these decisions, as should the time and resources available for the actual development process. If, for example, limited time is available, the ADDIE model is best avoided. We will take a deeper dive into these models below, but for now, it is essential to understand that these should be closely aligned with core objectives.
Key Theories in Instructional Design
Theories of instructional design are backed by extensive research and have a long history of shaping instructional strategies. These theories draw on a wealth of psychological precedence and can go a long way toward promoting the creation of engaging and supportive learning environments. Important theories of instructional design include:
Behaviorism and Its Application
Often referred to as behavioral learning theory, behaviorism is closely tied to the work of B.F. Skinner, is best known for the use of his “Skinner box,” along with his theory of operant conditioning. Although Skinner’s insights proved instrumental, behaviorism was actually popularized by John B. Watson, who famously claimed that, if given one dozen infants, he could shape them so they could thrive in any career path, including doctor, lawyer, artist and so on.
Instructional design expert Peg Ertmer explains that behaviorists regard learning as “changes in either the form or frequency of observable performance.” This means that the desired or proper response must be demonstrated “following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus.” Behaviorism suggests that the learner’s environment is of chief importance, as this has a direct impact on the learner’s behaviors and responses. In the context of instructional design, behaviorism is largely viewed as outdated, but remains influential in that it reveals the need for structured learning environments to produce measurable changes in behavior.
Cognitivism: Learning Through Thought Processes
Cognitivism reveals how people acquire and process knowledge. This learning theory posits that complex cognitive processes (such as concept formation or problem-solving) warrant greater attention than behavior alone. Accordingly, cognitivism shifts the focus from external stimuli to internal processes.
Although many psychologists have contributed to cognitivism as a learning theory, this is largely rooted in the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. Piaget outlined four stages of cognitive development, revealing how different stages reflected different ways of thinking about the world. Jerome Bruner focused on scaffolding as an opportunity to support learners as they progressed through increasingly complicated tasks.
Education Research: Across Multiple Paradigms explains that, in the context of instructional design, cognitivism reveals how “information will be more efficiently processed if it is provided in manageable pieces.” This means that new information should be presented in a way that limits the load on working memory and ultimately, paves the path for encoding in long-term memory.
Constructivism: Building Knowledge Through Experience
Referencing multiple schools of thought, constructivism suggests that learners actively develop (or construct) their own knowledge while building upon their previous insights and experiences. Constructivists do not view learning as a passive experience, but rather, advocate for learners to develop knowledge in their own unique way.
This psychological school technically qualifies as a branch of cognitivism, sharing the assumption that learning is a mental activity. With constructivism, environmental concerns also matter, as the mind is thought to filter input gained from real-world settings or situations, ultimately constructing its own reality.
From an instructional design perspective, constructivism emphasizes immersive or experiential learning. Educational reformer David H. Jonassen argues that this theory is most relevant for advanced knowledge acquisition, with behaviorism or cognitivism preferable during the introductory stages of learning.
Popular Principles of Instructional Design
Derived from the many theories highlighted above, the principles of instructional design aim to provide actionable strategies so that designers can translate theoretical concepts into impactful learning solutions. Among the most popular and applicable principles include:
Merrill’s Principles of Instruction
- David Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction aim to integrate the best or most resonant of the many theories and psychological schools that underscore modern instructional design. These theories form the basis for the First Principles of Instruction framework, which includes several core principles:
- Problem-centered learning
- Activation
- Demonstration
- Application
- Integration
Merrill is quick to explain that “information alone is not instruction,” revealing the need for engaging materials and strategies to ensure that difficult concepts resonate with learners. He also highlights that these individuals can retain essential information after they have made sense of it.
Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
Through his Nine Events of Instruction, educational psychology expert Robert Gagné proposed an actionable strategy for enhancing learning. As its name suggests, this consists of nine main steps and suggests that if students are exposed to all nine elements, they will be far more likely to reach successful learning outcomes. Each event within this framework is accompanied by an activity, which is needed to produce the intended event. Many teachers use this system to guide lesson planning. These include:
- Gain attention
- Inform learners of objectives
- Stimulate recall of prior learning
- Present stimulus
- Provide learner guidance
- Elicit performance
- Provide feedback
- Assess performance
- Enhance retention and transfer
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom was a major advocate for the theory of mastery learning, which suggests that learners must reach an elite level of understanding or competencies prior to moving on to new topics or skills. He is best known for his hierarchical classification of learning objectives, which is commonly referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy. This provides a detailed overview of the numerous levels of cognitive functioning, ranging from basic recall to higher-level thinking skills. As students move through strategies aligned to more challenging tasks, they immerse themselves in the content and explore the content at many levels. The revised version of this taxonomy highlights the following levels:
- Remembering
- Understanding
- Applying
- Analyzing
- Evaluating
- Creating
Popular Models of Instructional Design
Instructional design theories offer profound insights into how different audiences learn and which teaching methodologies or materials are most likely to facilitate effective learning. Without models or frameworks, however, it can be difficult to put instructional strategies into action. Models of instructional design bridge the gap, providing clear pathways to translate theory into practice. Currently, the field’s most recognizable models include:
ADDIE Model
Developed during the 1970s for military training purposes, the ADDIE model offers a robust yet easy-to-follow structure that encompasses five main phases:
- Analysis
- Design
- Development
- Implementation
- Evaluation
Although these phases are distinct and clearly defined, the ADDIE model leaves some room for flexibility by promoting iterative improvements driven by ongoing feedback. ADDIE has been the go-to instructional design framework for decades, but it presents a few potential weaknesses. The most frequent complaint involves its time-consuming sequential approach.
SAM (Successive Approximation Model)
Developed by instructional design pioneer Dr. Michael Allen, the Successive Approximation Model resembles the ADDIE model, but strives to streamline the process and, in doing so, overcome one of the chief complaints surrounding the ADDIE approach: a sequential structure that limits opportunities for rapid implementation or improvements. Simplifying key processes, the SAM encompasses three main stages, which allow for maximum feedback and quick adjustments. These include:
- Prep
- Iterative design
- Development
This model is valued for its holistic and flexible approach but has limitations. Its fluidity, while appealing to many instructional designers, can cause confusion or frustration for others. However, SAM is the preferred choice when a highly responsive design process is needed.
Dick and Carey Model
Sharing an acronym with the Successive Approximation Model, the Systems Approach Model is frequently referred to as the Dick and Carey Model in hopes of avoiding confusion. This model is named for instructional design trailblazers Walter Dick and Lou Carey, who proposed their model in The Systematic Design of Instruction, which has since been described as the “Bible of Instructional Design.”
Expanding on the phases of the ADDIE model, while emphasizing iterative solutions, Dick and Carey’s version includes nine steps:
- Identify goals
- Instructional analysis
- Highlight entry behaviors
- Create performance objectives
- Develop criterion tests
- Develop instruction strategy
- Select instructional materials
- Conduct formative evaluations
- Conduct summative evaluations
How to Apply These Theories, Principles and Models in Practice
The many theories and models of instructional design discussed above provide a wealth of insight into how people learn and what it takes to develop engaging and impactful instructional strategies. It is crucial that instructional designers understand these concepts and frameworks, but that is only the beginning — knowing which theories, principles or models to apply is a whole other matter.
This is where targeted graduate programs can prove transformative, providing opportunities to apply core theories while exploring real-world scenarios. Critical steps for making the most of core theories and models include:
Selecting the Right Approach for Your Audience
Different learners have dramatically different needs, and while these may also vary within specific programs or courses, these distinctions must be considered in the context of core instructional design theories and models. With highly structured environments, behaviorism and the ADDIE model may prove most relevant, while holistic learning scenarios or high-level cognitive pursuits may draw inspiration from constructivism or practical application from the Successive Approximation Model.
Blending Theories for Maximum Impact
No one theory is equally relevant in every setting or situation, and in many cases, a single theory will not provide the flexibility or nuance needed to meet unique instructional needs. This is why Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction were created. These were originally intended to act as a unifying framework, tying together the best elements of various theories and models of instructional design. Understanding the differences between key theories is crucial, but these can ultimately be mapped to influence different aspects of instructional design. The most effective blend typically encompasses active learning and continuous feedback.
Evaluating Effectiveness Through Feedback
Models such as ADDIE emphasize evaluation as a critical part of instructional design. However, feedback is always crucial regardless of the preferred model or framework. This helps shape instructional design’s spirit of continuous improvement, which is an ethos that reflects the very intentions of the many learners who benefit from instructional design.
Ideally, instructional designers will incorporate feedback into the structure of learning initiatives, seeking insight through a combination of user surveys and analytics. These insights can reveal whether learning experiences and materials help users meet their targeted objectives or whether any specific obstacles stand in the way.
Embrace New Opportunities in Instructional Design
Ready to shape the most impactful learning opportunities of tomorrow? Dive into the world of instructional design and explore new ways to elevate learning experiences. Keiser offers many programs designed to help instructional designers leverage cutting-edge tools and techniques.
The Education Specialist in Instructional Design and Theory program, for example, helps students learn to implement powerful educational experiences, while the Doctor of Philosophy in Instructional Design and Technology helps ambitious professionals apply instructional theories to achieve optimal educational and training outcomes across diverse settings. Keiser also helps students elevate learning experiences by pursuing the Master of Science in Education, Instructional Design and Technology. Feel free to discuss these opportunities with one of our graduate admissions counselors.
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